Open or open-ended questions, this type includes such inquiries

Types of Interview 'Questions

While one probably could generate an infinite list of types and sub-types of questions, we shall, begin by distinguishing only two; unrestricted and restricted. Unrestricted questions allow the respondent to discuss almost anything she or he pleases; resu'icted questions specify the limits of the desired answer. But the differences between the two go far beyond this, d we shall therefore consider each question type in turn.

Unrestricted Questions

Often termed open or open-ended questions, this type includes such inquiries as What's new? and Tell me about yourself. Questions of this sort provide definite advantages to the interviewer. One may learn how much the interviewee knows, the things she deems important or trivial, her beliefs and values, and how well she is able to express herself. Questions such as these convey a sense of warmth to the interviewee, implicitly telling her that she is interesting and that anything she has to say will be important and relevant. However, unresnicted questions
present potential problems. They may require a great deal of time, for often the interviewer. They require a great deal of skill on the part of the interviewee spends several minutes relating information of no use to the interviewer, who must know when and how to interrupt the respondent, to encourage her and to provide her with further questions. Finally, they produce unstructured, spontaneous answers which often are difficult to analyse. Nevertheless, for certain situations unrestricted questions "are remarkably effective tools for gathering information.

warmth; the interviewee has no opponunity to volunteer potentially valuable information. The advantages and shortcomings of restricted questions are thus the reverse of the benefits and drawbacks of unrestricted questions.

Which type of question should be employed?

Generally the answer is based largely on the situation. If the interview must obtain maximum amounts of information in minimum periods of time, and if the interview- is to be conducted by persons not particularly skilled in interviewing techniques, the restricted form seems most desirable. If, on the other hand, the interview involves personal matters (as in counselling or disciplinary interviews), seeks general kinds of information about the interviewee, is under no pressures of time, and will be conducted by a skilled interviewer, then the unrestricted form is preferable. Clearly the situations described here are extremes; most situations fall somewhere between the two, conidering some per,sonal matters, being conducted by adeqrlitely skilled interviewers, and so on. But the unrestricted- restricted dichotomy also represent as extremes; questions can be phrased that are somewhat restricted or somewbat unrestricted. Whether extremely restricted, extremely unrestricted, or some moderated forms of questions are chosen, the choice should reflect the situational factors we have considered.

Interviewing is a conversation directed to a definite purpose other than satisfaction in the conversation itself

The nature of interviews

Bingham, Moore, and Oustad suggest that "interviewing is a conversation directed to a definite purpose other than satisfaction in the conversation itself." Similarly, Kahn and Cannell argue that an interview is "a specialized pattern of verbal interaction initiated for specific purpose, and focused on some specific content area, with a subsequent elimination of extraneous material." Goyer, Reading, and Rickey term interviewing "a form of oral communication involving two parties, at least one of whom has a preconcei ved and serious purpose and both of whom speak and listen from time to time."

These definitions in turn suggest several differences between interviews and other forms of dyadic communication. First, while virtually all interpersonal communication has some underlying purpose, interview has a purpose which is more clearly defined-and more directly sought. Second, interviews typically involve careful preparation by the interviewer. Although we often "Ian" conversations we anticipate having with others, thinking. Now, if she says so-and-so, I'll say this, rarely is that planning as thorough as the planning preceding an interview. Third, the communication roles of the participants are predetermined to an extent not usually found in other types of interpersonal communication. Both participants realize that the interviewer will ask questions and the interviewee will respond, and both of them usually adhere to those role prescriptions. Finally, while the dominance dimension of an interpersonal relationship usually is determined by situational factors such as organizational role or status, dominance in the interview is determined solely by the communication roles of the paI1icipants. Since the interviewer directs the conversation through her or his use of questions, the intelviewer always is the dominant individual. While, the company president usually dominates a shop foreman, a foreman interviewer would dominate the president interviewee during the interview itself. Interviews therefore differ from other interpersonal interactions in that they have a specific purpose, are carefully planned, have predetermined communication roles, and generate situation-specific dominance.

Gordon lists several additional benefits of the interview.

First, it allows the information seeker greater opportunity to elicit complete and accurate information from the interviewee. The interviewer is able to assess immediately the respondent's answers and to seek further information or elaboration if necessary-things one cannot do when administering a questionnaire.

Second; the interviewer can Clarify the questions. If someone filling out a questionnaire misinterprets a question, the person collecting the information may wind up with elToneous information and incolTect conclusions; in the interview, however, the interviewer can determine immediately whether the interviewee has understood the question or seen the implications the question calTies. Should such comprehension not be present, the interviewer can remedy the situation immediately.

Third, most forms of interviews allow greater flexibility of questioning than does a questionnaire or other informatibn-gathering meihods. Interview forms occur along a continuum ranging from extremely su'uctured to extremely unstructured. Although flexibility is minimal in the structured situation, the interviewer still is able to restate or rephrase questions. In unsu'uctured interviews, flexibility is maximized; the interviewer can let the flow of conversation dictate what questions she or he will ask. Fourth, the interview situation allows careful control by the interviewer. Questionnaires may be complete anywhere and letters may be read and answered in any situation. In the interview, however, the interviewer is able to choose
and, to some degree, control the interview environment. If the interviewer chooses to speak with a respondent in the respondent's home, the interviewer's control of the situation will be minimal. If the respondent visit the interviewer, the latter's control is maximized. The interviewer can control interruptions, arrange the furniture, dictate the time of the interview, and so on. Finally, the interviewer may obtain more information about the interviewee in face-to-face encounters. By observing the respondent's non-verbal behaviours, the interviewer can evaluate his attitudes toward the questions, his answers, and even the interviewer himself-judgments not always possible with written responses. Thus the interview seems the most desirable means of gathering information; it maximizes immediacy and enhances the interviewer's abilities to obtain complete responses, to guide respondents' interpretations, to adapt to the situation, to control the situation, and to judge respondents' underlying feelings.

Suggestions to help improve the lecturer's technique

Spector devised an experiment
whereby the same poorly delivered lecture was given to different groups .of subjects. After 15 minutes the groups were asked to write down suggestions to help improve the lecturer's technique. One group was then told that their suggestions had been accepted, one that their suggestions had been seen but rejected, and another that the suggestions had not been read or accepted. The lecturer then carried on exactly as before-in the same poor style-to all groups. Beforeafter attitudinal questionnaires found that the group 'allowed' to feedback advice felt that the lecture had improved in style more than either of the other two groups.

Most writers on industry would argue that, in general, an open feedback system would result in a clearer picture of responsibilities. difficulties. and strong and weak points of both superior and subordinate. Prompt feedback on performance may be more important in changing behaviour than intensive discussions which only occur infrequently. Furthermore, a human need is satisfied when personnel are informed of their progress and the effectiveness of this satisfaction is governed by the clearness of the perfOlmance targets and the accuracy with

Dyadic or interpersonal communication involves face-toface exchanges between two individuals. Our model of communication and interpersonal relationships and our discussion of non-verbal communication, serial communication, communication networks, leadership and management, com-munication barriers, and methods of improving organizational communication all centre to some degree upon the one-to-one, face-to-face communrcation situation. In this chapter we shall consider a special form of interpersonal communication: the interview. Since organizational decisions concerning policy, procedures, and personnel often are made on the basis of information gained through interviews, effective interviewing techniques are crucial to organizational success. We shall therefore consider the nature of interviews, kinds of questions often employed during interviews, and specific types of interviews commonly used in organizations.

In examining the inspection section of a manufacturing firm

Co-ordination between related functions

Even when clearer performance goals have been established, however, co-ordination between related functions may be necessary. British researchers Thurley and Hamblin illustrate a case in point. In examining the inspection section of a manufacturing firm they found that the aims of the supervisors on the three shifts involved were different:

Shift A

raised production rates by cutting down on rejecting units. concentrated on quality by rejecting even border. line cases. Shift C was emissive and allowed individual foreman to follow their own inclinations.

The authors conclude that the overall result was one of erratic quality which could be stabilized by the establishing of overall objectives common to each shift.

Furthermore the introduction of clear but slack targets, with little incentive to improve on them, can produce additional problems as one manager grumbled: 'Those bright boys upstairs with their targets and deadlines! They sent a circular to all the customers saying orders for delivery the next quay should be in by 1.30 p.m. Now hardly anyone sends them in before that and we're going round like trying to cope with the last minute rush.

Shift B

Feedback

As has been continually emphasized in this book, communication is a two-way process: after passing a message a transmitter looks for some reaction in the receiver-some feedback. It is from this feedback that the transmitter decides how to frame or pitch his next communication act. Only through feedback can an individual build up a picture of the receiver's attitudes and from this picture predict future responses.

The effect of feedback on task performance has been ably dem)Ostrated by Leavitt and Mueller. In their laboratory study four groups of stUdents were required to assemble a design of rectangles from a verbal description given by the researchers. The four groups were differentiated by the degree of feedback they were allowed with the instructor. Summarizing their results, the following essentials were discovered:

(1) Increased feedback increased accuracy.

(2) Increased feedback increased the time involved initially, but eventually similar times to zero feedback trials were obtained.

(3) Zero feedback gives rise to hostility in the receiver.

(4) Zero feedback creates doubt in the receiver.

Similar results were recorded by Zajonc in a laboratory study of twenty groups with seven subjects in each. The experiment involved the reaction time in depressing a key after receiving a set stimulus. A red light would flash if failure occurred. Perfonnance was found to be best when feedback was at a maximum-in this case infOlmation could be fed back to the subject on his own performance, his group's performance, and the prformance of the other group members. The subjects wIth slow reaction times improved their perfonnance most quickly under conditions of maximum feedback
Not only does factual feedback have measurable effects but also perceptual feedback has been shown to change attitudes.

Point of decision-making and increase his sense of participation in the decision-making process

Delegation of authority

Communication accuracy was found to be greater at higher levels of the firm studied. Although this may have been due in part to the ability of the managers who have reached these higher levels, there were indications that. another factor may have been the greater authority and responsibilities found at these levels. This may bring the subordinate nearer to the point of decision-making and increase his sense of participation in the decision-making process. Even at lower levels, where subordinates believed the power or influence of their superior to be high, communication accuracy was improved. As companies grow it becomes more difficult for top managers to keep tabs on all phases of their operations: many executives in even moderately sized firms would have difficulty if asked to list all phases or products of their firm's activities-an ideal time for them to consider if they can adequately supervise all the functions under their control.One can, however, look upon bypassing as a type of feedback and self-corrective adjustment. Weiss and Jacobson loted in their study of the governmental agency mentioned earlier that if the supervisor of a work group failed to fulfil the needed liaison role for his group, some other member would often take over this necessary communication function.

To counteract this tendency and to bring the subordinate nearer the decision-making point, power commensurate with responsibilities could be delegated to lower levels of the organization. Good communication is as imp0l1ant at the bottom of an organization as at the top. By way of example an executive with Sears Roebuck may find he has as many as forty managers reporting to him-not so that he can supervise them properly but precisely because it avoids the necessity for very close supervision and allows the subordinates to take responsibility and speed up decision-making.

It is interesting to note that the firm which believes most su'ongly in this doctrine-and practises a form of management by objectives-has the highest average power and trust scores of all the firms involved in the study. At the other end of the scale, the firm with lowest trust and power ratings had a managing director who opened all mail before having it distributed to the respective heads of departments allowing them to scrutinize the mail of their juniors before it eventually anived on the desks of the addresses.

Performance targets

Once the details of an individual's responsibilities and duties have been defined it would seem a logical step to find some way of assessing the person's degree of success in carrying out his duties-in other words assessing his performance.

Many people believe that 'management for results' has often failed through the targets being imprecise, e.g. produce at minimum cost instead of a precise target reduce production costs by 5 per cent within 6 months. Precise standards, objective in the eyes of both superiors and subordinates, can reduce the amount of subjective criticism often occurring between superior-subordinate managers. At the same time at least some progress towards achieving objectives should be prompt. Some time ago- when in a longish period of introductory training with my firm one felt irrationally guilty and considerably frustrated by not contributing to the consultants' 'batting average' the activity or fee-reaming ratio.

Clarification of responsibility is directed to the person able to affect the outcome

spheres of delegated responsibilities

It would seen that this failure is quite common in British industry as a poll of works managers place 'frustration at all management levels, due to lack of clearly defined spheres of delegated responsibilities, fomth in a list of factors limiting productivity. This is also confmned by Management Consultants Blake and Mouton who suggest that many managers have the attitude to their new subordinates of 'throwing him into the thick of things'. One manager in the present study used almost the same words: 'I was just flung into the deep end. Mind you it is the quickest way to leam-ink or swim.

It is also important to ensme that any clarification of responsibility is directed to the person able to affect the outcome, for as another manager complained:

We have full responsibility to draw up the route cards for each lorry so the drivers don't check them at the start of their shift. If there's been a mistake, they'll come back at the end of the day, still half loaded, without a care in the world, and hand us back our mistakes. It is too late for us to do anything then.

More objective work was carried out by Michigan University's Dent and Mann when they studied the accounting section of an electric power company. In this study individual and group performance was found to be related to the individual's knowledge of his responsibilities. Similarly, industrial psychologists Rodgers and Harrison with fourteen superior-subordinate pairs in a laboratory study, and with fifty-nine similar pairs at overhaul shops in a naval air station respectively, found that subordinates who more accurately predicted what their superiors expected of them tended to be given high I ranking on job performance.

On the other hand, a similar study of fifty-one foreman-manager pairs found no such correlation, while yet another team of researchers from Michigan University found no improvements in agreement on the subordinate's 'job through the use of written job descriptions. They conclude: 'Job descriptions may be adequate for long term relatively permanent matters, but they are less than adequate for dealing with situations which are constantly changing. '

Many of these apparently conflicting findings may stem from the grouping of all types of communication together. Work in 1964 by Kahn and his associates have made the first step in separating work oriented communication from welfare oriented communication. In their study they found 38 per cent of their subjects received inadequate information on advancement training prospects. The more recent studies by Herzberg, Paul, Lawler and Porter, and Friedlander and Walton, are beginning to put these findings in a conceptual context by a similar separation of motivation nto positive and negative, making essential reading for any manager interested in motivating his work force.

Good deal about the general policies on which the operation of the company is based

Defining responsibilities

The now retired managing director of Glacier Metal, Wilfred Brown, writes in his best seller Exploration in Management.When a subordinate is newly appointed to a job, he should, if he has been adequately trained. know a good deal about the general policies on which the operation of the company is based, but he will not know the detailed polices of his new manager. He needs, at this stage, a rapid and decisive introduction to and familiarity with those detailed terms of reference which constitute much of the prescribed content of his new job.It is essential to give an explicit statement of the situation at the beginning if unnecessary problems are to be avoided. Newly appointed managers often tend to refrain, if possible, from asking many questions because they feel that, if they do, they will give the impression that they are not able to fill the position or because they want to make an immediate demonstration of their competence by doing the job without guidance.

Practitioners of 'management by objectives' would seem to agree in that they see the essence of management success as the achievement of results in an area of responsibility

The following is a typical example of the problems which can arise when responsibilities are not clearly defmed.

General foreman Jones considers foreman Smith responsible for certain maintenance functions in the department of which Smith is production foreman. These responsibilities include:...

(a) Reporting effective equipment promptly to maintenance.

(b) Investigating all breakdowns and reporting improper maintenance which leads to breakdown.

(c) Making the decision to release equipment for repair when requested by a mechanic.

(d) When a breakdown occurs, finding out the cause, how long it 'will take to repair the machine, and assign operators elsewhere if it is estimated to be over 15 minutes.

(e) Investigating every charge of operator negligence leading to machine down-time and to take corrective action to prevent a ,recurrence.

Foreman Smith reports, that he has no responsibility for maintenance. He does none of the above things. He feels no sense of short-coming since he does not believe that these are his responsibilities. Smith explains this shortcoming as follows: 'After all, the mechanics don't rep0l1 to me, they have their own boss.

If, as is often the case, general foreman Jones never actually gets around to discussing the specific aspects ,to the job but is guided in his appraisal of Smith by checklist of personality traits, the unfortunate subordinate may never loam what his job actually consists of.

Flow of information in an electronic manufacturing firm tested employees' knowledge of company policies

Defining company policy

It is generally assumed that a person will be a more effective member of an organization if he has a knowledge of the purpose of the organization Ana its operations. Such knowledge should help person to understand his job better and also to appraise his own performance and the performance of others more readily. In the hospital study mentioned the lack of explanations or information regarding personnel policies, promotions, and salary increases were occasionally mentioned as irritating and conducive to snooping and suspicion. One study of the flow of information in an electronic manufacturing firm tested employees' knowledge of company policies. Differences in test scores were uncovered in different pro1s of the company such that job performance was better on an individual and group basis where the knowledge of the policies was better.

It may be that managing directors have a general reluctance to establish clear policies in case this action reduces their flexibility in the future.

Recruitment

In looking through the personal characteristics of the electronic fIrms' managers it was noticeable that the only selection procedure that they had in common was that of 'like choosing like'. Thus the social background and type of schooling of the top management tended to be reflected in the junior management. One manager explained his reasoning behind this: 'I don't suppose we do this consciously, but when you talk to an applicant you soon know if you would get on together. If he talks rugby while everyone else talks football, it is clear indication to me that we would have communication problems later on. '

Some managements believe that the sons of professionals, being used to the hustle and bustle of executive life, make the best managers. Others believe that the more gifted sons of the lower classes are better in that they have had to make their way up the managerial. ladder solely on their own ability. It is no coincidence that the followers of the first philosophy tend to be sons of professionals while followers of the latter tend to be from the lower classes. These factors should come as no surprise to people interested in human logic, for, after all, the manager who has achieved some degree of success in his career may feel quite justified in selecting subordinates in what he feels is his own image. If this manager has the 'key to success' why should not candidates of similar background have the same gift?

What constitutes the can, of course, become quite bizarre. One American executive ('officer to Vance Packard that a goocon-act management image d executive should have good ears. Packard thought the manager meant that an executive should be good listener until he noticed the uncommonly large size of the man s ears. There is little doubt that most managers would not use ear size as a means of selection, but there are many managers who would go along with the ex-regular Army officer I met: 'I think most of the other managers here agree with me-if the candidate doesn't have a short head of hair we can reject him without bothering with the interview. It's been my experience in the Army that the "long hairs" were always in the charge room.'

What sort of charges were they on, I asked: 'Oh, usually for having long hair', he replied.

It is misleading to think that such preferences are uncommon in industry. One Harvard course in advanced management was attended by over one hundred businessmen; only 40 per cent of them had moustaches and none had beards: These pressures to conform usually start during recruitment interviews. McKinsey Management Consultants Inc. were rumored to have instructed their consultants to wear suspenders and not self-supporting socks, while a British Consulting firm insists that bearded recruits shave before joining their ranks. These managerial preferences may only. be regarded as slightly illogical or mildly inefficient, but they are rather ominous, as indicated by many studies in America which, for example, have shown that religious, racial and political allegiances are of prime importance in the selection proceed. .

Returning to the background differences among the electronics managers, the results described that these differences had no effect on the accuracy of communication between managers, while the evidence concerning cognitive distance and frames of references was inconclusive. The only factor uncovered in the. study which can be used to aid the selection of good communicators are those of education level or managerial style. An even more direct approach may be to select "high performers' for middle or upper managerial levels, especially where communicating ability is essential..

The suggestion to recruit educational 'whiz kids' or the 'high flyers' of industry may be a daunting prospect for many managers. Some firms are reputed to slow down the progress of their own 'bright young men', fearing the jealousy and anxiety that can be caused among the other managers, but few top managers will admit to being apprehensive about their own job security. It should be remembered, however, that among the electronics managers the well educated and fast movers had accurate communication as their common factor. In neither group were these managers more promotion ally minded than less endowed colleagues.

Information systems of an organization many social scientists

The research found the more cohesive the group the more communication was directed to obtain agreement. In other studies some subjects in the group were given different information from the main group and hence had the initial tendency to suggest a different solution. The more homogeneous or cohesive the group the more communication was directed at the deviant to obtain a change in his solution towards that of group agreement.

From this and other research Fastener has drawn up some theories to cover group pressures in communication:
(1) Pressure toward agreement is caused by:

(a) social reality-:-when actual information is low, group pressures can be strong, the 'loner' having fewer concrete facts with owlish to disagree or argue:

(b) group locomotion-the need to progress, as a group, towards a common goal. This factor is often apparent with political parties on approaching and election when old enmities are temporarily forgotten.

(2) The resulting quantity of communication to create agreement:

(a) increases the greater the discrepancy is thought to be;

(b) increases the greater the perceived importance of the discrepancy;

(c) increases the greater the group cohesiveness;

(d) increases toward the deviants;

(e) increases when a reduction in the difference of opinion is expected

(f) -decreases towards persons thought to be outside the group or not wanted in the group.

(3) The amount of change in opinions:

(a) increases with the pressure for agreement-the more the pressure the more the change;

(b) increases with group cohesiveness;

(c) decreases when the recipient knows of other groups holding his present beliefs, giving him an anchor in an agreement or even a 'new home' if the pressure becomes unbearable.

(4) The tendency to reject members:

(a) increases with the perceived discrepancy;
(b) increases with group cohesiveness;
(c) increases with the relevance of the issue.

In the examination of the information systems of an organization many social scientists attempt first to identify social groupings. From the research reviewed it appears realistic for some purposes to view a business organization as a collection of small social groups of overlapping membership rather than to view it as a set of individuals linked by lines of authority and responsibility. The analysis of information generation and flow throughout the organization can be aimed by considering groups as the main units of which the organization is comprised and by consideration of individual behavior as an expression in part of group processes.

The manager of today needs to choose his methods

Various approaches have been made to improve organizational communication which, although often quite different, is widely applied in industry. Few, however, have been subjected to rigorous examination, for their adoption or rejection seems often dependent on the subjective judgments of the top management involved. The results of a study indicate that although all the firms communicated with a certain degree of effectiveness, the communication differences between the "firms were quite markedly comparing the firms; the degree to which organizational factors were responsible for good or bad communication could be calculated. The practical implications of this analysis are discussed in detail below.

Transmission of specific items of information

In another study Davis illustrated one of the ways in which communication flow may be studied. He traced the transmission of specific items of information throughout the organization of a manufacturing fInn with attention to their point of origin, their chains and networks of transmission, the speed of communication in different chains and networks, and points of blockage of communication. Among other things in this particular fInn, he found:

(1) At every level of the organization except the very top there were some groups of members who were generally isolated from the flow of information and who got information very late or not at all.

(2) The formal mechanisms for communication were slower and more often resulted ih incomplete transmission.

(3) Communication via personal, informal-, face-to-face verbal exchanges occurred more frequently and faster than communication via more formal mechanisms.

(4) In this organization there was a severe blockage between the fourth and fifth levels such the only a fraction of information items passed this barrier:

(5) More than half of the information' items traced reached their destinations by crossing over organizational .line rather than flowing through the intended formal lines. .

(6) A unit of information was much more likely to flow downward than upward from any isn’t of origin that allowed two-directional flow.

Davis concludes from this, study that the grape-vine misbehavior is often patterned by the model provided by others. It is, for example, most noticeable how groups of managers at the same level tend to smoke the same brand of cigarettes. When one manager moves up a level his 'favorite' brand may change quite unconsciously. With this in mind some of the basic research into group pressures is highly relevant to the more important areas of executive meetings, department disagreements, etc.

American psychologists Kelley and Woodruff have shown how an individual' beliefs can be modified if he feels that his' group' holds different beliefs. Two groups of young teachers listened to. a recorded speech loudly applauded by a fictitious audience. The speech rejected most of the modern teaching methods in famous:" of tried and tested old-fashioned ones-a philosophy at odds with that of the young teachers. The group who were told that the applauding' audience' were student teachers adjusted their beliefs more than the twin group who were. told the audience consisted of a variety of young graduates. In general we find that the more a. person feels that his beliefs go against those of his group', the more he changes his opinions in the direction of those of his group.

What holds members of such groups together is their social cohesion or, more accurately, their ability to transmit relevant messages more accurately to each other than to anyone else.

Even in the clinical atmosphere of psychological laboratories, similar patterns emerge. In one such study,groups of strangers were given tasks to perform; although all the groups were randomly selected, cerate ones were informed that they had been specially brought together because of some similarities in their backgrounds, and these groups were termed the more cohesive groups.

The authors suggest that in this academic atmosphere critical evaluation

The authors suggest that in this academic atmosphere critical evaluation rather than

agreement or acquiescence was the more highly regarded. It may also be the case that

comments to do with the work in hand are more often directed to high-power individuals

in the hope that suggested changes are adopted-the assumption being that low-power

individuals are ‘powerless’ to implement changes even if they agree with them.

To sum up, many writers suggest that powerful superiors are not likely to receive

information about their errors or mistakes. Other writers believe that work¬oriented

executives might be expected to communicate especially about their adverse and

difficult problems to individuals who can advise or assist them. As one manager in the

study put it: ‘An influential boss is the only one worth having-it’s no use taking your

problems to a fellow who hasn’t the authority or resources to solve them.’

Table shows that in this study superiors with greater power received more accurate

information about their subordinates’ problems than their less influential colleagues. The

background of the managers may be an important factor in this finding. Like the students

and academics of Perlmutter and Hymovitch’s study, the managers involved were well

educated and many had received technical or science degrees. It may be that among

these managers constructive comment and criticism

vitally important for the satisfaction of their needs, and so ‘lows’ attempt to maximize

vitally important for the satisfaction of their needs, and so ‘lows’ attempt to maximize

good relations and minimize feelings unease in their interactions with ‘highs. In

conferences, the ‘lows’ communicated less frequently than the ‘highs’, and when they did

communicate they directed their talk mainly to ‘highs’.

These authors and others have shown that persons in low-status positions also engage

in ‘facile distortions’ in their perceptions of their relationships with superiors, and

generally behave in an ‘ego-defensive’ manner. In lay terms people some way down the

social ladder ‘fool’ themselves that their relationships with their superiors are much more

important than they really are. The following quote from one of the managers in the study

illustrates this point: ‘What I really need to get some of my ideas going, is to report

directly to the board, they could see things more clearly.’

There is, however, work by Perlmutter and Hymovitch which has received little attention

although it raises some fundamental points about the ‘instrumental theory. These

academics demonstrated that upward communication may be used specifically to

achieve the aims of the communicator but need not always be

deferential or approval seeking, the context of the communication being of great

importance. In a college setting it was found that students communicated more critical

comments to a group of high”’power faculty members than to thos with less power.

The reasoning behind this hypothesis

The reasoning behind this hypothesis

was that the subordinate would again restrict adverse information to the more powerful

superior who could have a greater influence on his future salary or promotional chances.

Theories

From the foregoing research two basic theories have emerged. The ‘status

approximatron’ theory claims that when ‘lows’ seek upward movement in a hierarchy of

status or power, but cannot achieve it, then their excessive communication to the higher

status group members cap. be looked upon as a ‘psychological substitute’ for the

upward mobility they have failed to achieye. The second theory regards other upward

communication as being ‘instrumentally oriented’ towards promotion. i.e. aspiring lows

attempt to maximizegOQd relations with highs in order to achieve the upward

movement they desire. Typically they will try to cover up their mistakes and take

every opportunity to agree with and praise their superiors. Because of the importance of

these theories to managerial communication, more examples of research are worthy of

consideration.

Hurwitz et al. suggest that upward communication in any social organization is primarily

Whereas studies in the fifties’ stressed centrality as the important dependent

Whereas studies in the fifties’ stressed centrality as the important dependent variable for

morale in their network experiments, later work demonstrated that power was the

primary determinant of morale, followed closely by centrality, self-actualization, and

activity in the net.

In industry similar divisions of opinions occur. Supervisors at the same level often have

varying degrees of influence in their unit, and this variation in power and influence can

have considerable effects on the communication process. The superiors, by virtue of

their position, can use direct, unsubtle methods, while their subordinates cannot. While

one group of writers advocated that more power should be given to supervisors, others

are in favour of reducing superiors’ control over subordinates. But lack of power can also

bring problems; when superiors have little power, then subordinates may react against

them-morale can be lowered and performance adversely affected.

That prolific writer on organizational behaviour, Likert, believes that high-producing

managers achieve better communication and greater influence than the lower

producers. Many examples in management journals suggest that uninfluential managers

are often bypassed by subordinates seeking action from higher, more powerful,

superiors. The logic of these moves may not be missed by the bypassed manager, and

the aggravation and annoyance often caused may reduce what communication

effectiveness> is left. Many managers recognize that this is a problem of loss of face

and go to great lengths to avoid thi.s ‘bypassing’ action, whether it be upward or

downward

themselves be interpreted as bypassing methods commonly used by top management,

believing that these are good for human relations. These policies often generate

suspicion among the bypassed middle management. How far can a subordinate go in

pointing out his boss’s mistakes-the man often in charge of his progress and salary in

the organization? Many mnagers speculate that they might lose not only their jobs but

also their pension rights if they question their superior’s judgment too closely. As Arch

Patton of the blue chip consulting firm McKinsey says: ‘It

puts an unrealistically large premium on man’s honesty ‘

Industrial psychologist Read took this further when he attempted to uncover a significant

negative relationship between communication accuracy and the degree of power or

influence the subordinate felt his superior to have.

Professor Scott concludes that people relatively deprived of status

Professor Scott concludes that people relatively deprived of status are not always

adversely affected by the system. Others go further and suggest that among

managers with jobs primarily defined in terms of performance, differences in

responsibilities and status may be psychologically and motivationally unimportant.

The foregoing pages indicate that the theories on the effects of status differentials are

numerous and often contradictory. Some of this confusion may be due to the

general use of the word status or to the confused manner.

in which individual people ascribe status. In industry top management has a lot of say in

establishing status levels through their power to assign VaI10US grades of the visible

symbols of status.

Power

The effects of desire for advancement on individual communication when status is the

main variable are even more clearly seen when power differentials are substituted for

prestige or status differentials. Psychologist Cohen made this substitution in a

replication of Kelly’s laboratory study. Group members were dependent upon those

above them for advancement. Significantly fewer messages critical of those in higher

power positions were passed upward by low-power members, who believed they had a

chance of promotion, than by 19w-power members who did not. Zander and his

colleagues uncovered similar fmdings in their study of professional relationships among

mental health teams. They found that low-power persons who wished either to advance

or improve on their present level communicated less freely with their superiors, and were

more likely to tell superiors, about their successes

than were low..:power per,Sons with no ambition to move

upward. .

The line managers often wore overalls during their working day,

The line managers often wore overalls during their working day,

whereas the staff men invariably wore suites. The younger men were regarded as ‘green

boys still wet behind the ears’, and any sabotaging of their ideas was hailed as a great

success. Conversely,

the staff men regarded the operational staff as ‘old fashioned stick in the mud’s who

would not discuss anything rationally.

Similar problems have been reported in an early Swedish study. The use of formal

systems of address decor and situation of offices, and the place and company k-ept at

lunch times, were, felt to be the major causes of friction. These systems of status are just

as visible in Britain.

In larger firms the elaborations of status can become

quite opulent. Wen Hollywood was making North by Northwest they borrowed an

executive’s suite as it was more sumptuous than anything their props, men could

design or afford, even having a large number of original

paintings valued over $ 10,000 each. Firms at this level of luxury sometimes become a

little self-conscious over their executive perks. Company jets may cease to carry the

organization’s emblem because of the possible adverse effects in the minds of

shareholders and union leaders waiting at the airport for their economy flights.

Opinion is divided on the effects of status. Communication can benefit through the

informal associations existing in most organizations-associations often grouped by

department, status level, etc. Alternatively, Professor Scott of Salford University takes an

uncommitted view and looks at status differentials both as an incentive and as a divisive

factor in organizations. But even he was surprised when he overheard a canteen

waitress commenting on a director’s frequent company car changes: ‘If he wants to swop

his car that often, he’s entitled to do it. Who wants to see the head of our business going

around in a scruffy old car?

The existing system of status stratification is itself a fundamental

source of the ambition to climb the managerial ladder.

Professor Burns of Edinburgh University suggests that the dislike and rejection of

subordination, especially in organic or developing working organizations, created some

of the discrepancies in job descriptions he found in his detailed today. He suggests with

Stalker that reductions of status differentials will improve industrial communications by

breaking down some of these barriers. Status differentials can apply also to whole

departments. The British Institute of Works Managers comments on a large poll of their

members: ‘The relationship between production, design and sales evoked considerable

comment; it was suggested that production is not held in the same esteem as the others

and sales are allowed too much authority.

While the status of age is a factor over which an organization has little control, it still can

cause problems. Sociologist Dalton, who has worked ‘undercover’ in a number of plants

to collect information for his popular book Men Who Manage, f01,md the older line

officers disliking what they regarded as instructions from the younger staff officers.

These factory specialists were typically younger, better educated, and ‘smoother’ than

the production staff.

‘confusion on thejob’ and ‘negative attitudes about their own job’.

In general the intention of the

experimental subjects seems to be to retain or improve status, the lowering of status

being thought of as highly undesirable. The selective screening of infonmition described

above is seen by these researchers as a ‘psychological substitute’ for actual movement

upward on the. part of aspiring low-status members.

In industrial pyramids these effects can be translated as a lack of open relationships.

Managers become reluctant to upset or contradict their superiors by giving them

unpleasant facts-there can be a tendency to keep

one’s head down, a reluctance to experiment, to take risks, and even to make effective

decisions. In many fIrms more or less specific forms of behaviour become prescribed for

the contacts between persons at different levels on the ladder of status. The supelior

may call his subordinate by his first name, but the junior shows deference in responding

by addressing the superior more formally. Even after working hours the boss’s wife may

use the subordinate’s wife’s Christian name while she may not reply with a first name

unless invited to. The degree of formalization of behaviour patterns varies between

organizations. Senior managers “might be surprised if their

juniors stood to attention when they entered the room,

although in the Army this is the norm. Nevertheless, the

‘captains’ of industry are accustomed to a considerable amount of preferential

treatment-the chauffeured car, the parking spot nearest the entrance foyer, the

sharpened pencils, and the percolating coffee-to name but a few examples.

As already mentioned, the effects of status divisions on communication have even been

shown in the artifIcial atmosphere of the laboratory. Similarly, Roethlisberger and

Dickson showed that each job in their experiment group at Western Electric’s Chicago

Plant carried its own social status or significance. The group in the Bank Wiring

Observation Room could be differentiated into five graduations ranging from the highest

to the lowest. Whyte found similar divisions where workers at a salad station in a

restaurant were accorded higher status by fellow

employees than those engaged -in the preparation of vegetables or fIsh.

From the foregoing it would seem that status differentials can occur at any level of

industry. It can also

be argued’that the status of the job itself-its potential in arousing feelings of pride, worth,

and recognition-is an important element in moulding attitudes and in gratifying

psychological needs.

to develop from being in a subordinate position in the

family and society to aspiring to occupy an equal and! or superior position relative to

one’s fellow men;

(b) to develop from a state of dependence upon others to

relative independence.

In laboratory and industrial research these needs have been interpreted as aspirations

towards two main goals-higher stats and greatr power. The difficulties in separating

these ambitions may be due. to the fact that they often go hand in hand-especially in

industry. However, for the purpose of this book it may be useful to define th tenns as

used in the text. Status is looked upon as a system of ranking people by some quality,

real or perceived, while power is the ability, real or perceivedt to affect the lives of

others.

Status

Thibaut and Kelley have both clearly demonstrated the . adverse effects on group

cohesiveness of high achievement desires. In Kellly’s study, students took part in

laboratory

group tasks with artificial status differentials imposed, while in Thibaut’s research, boys

played games under similar statuS differentials. Strong individual achievement hopes

were found to reduce group COhe!ilVeneSs in both experiments. Also noticed was the

fact that those individuals who wished to move upward in these artificial hierarchies

tended to communicate in that direction. These studies and many others all confirm the

following conclusions.

Upward communication is likely to contain much information which is irrelevant to the job

in hand, and in terms of total volume is likely to be greater from ‘lows’ to ‘highs’ than the

reverse.. Members of low-status groups refrain from expressing pent-up aggressions

towards high¬status individuals. imilarly, information critical of persons in higher level

positions is restricted. Low-status subjects, given no opportunity to move upward,

communicate more freely than low-status subjects who have this opportunity.

Meanwhile, her manager is shuffling papers around of his

Meanwhile, her manager is shuffling papers around of his

desk while saying, ‘Go ahead. I’ll be listening while I get these forms finished up.” What

kind of an impression will the employee receive? The employee obviously thinks that her

problem is important, but the manager acts as if ‘his forms are as important, if not more

so. As a result, he has established a negative listening climate with no demonstrated

empathy. The manager should give full physical and psychological attention to the

speaker by maintaining eye contact, leaning slightly toward the speaker, changing facial

expression in relationship to the message, and taking notes. All are ways that

demonstrate a positive listening climate.Industrial psychologist Argyrist in writing about

personality, sees seven basic needs in man.. Two of these

needs, especially relevant to industrial communication are:

A research study asked employees to indicate which of these poor listening habits they

A research study asked employees to indicate which of these poor listening habits they

found to be the most common. In the results, two items seemed to stand out.

When I’m talking, he finishes sentences for me.

When I come in, he doesn’t put down what he is

doing and turn his attention completely to me.

This finding is especially revealing. Clearly, the listener needs to give undivided attention

to the speaker who does not want to be rushed to complete the message. This fact

relates to the “25-to 75” speaking-thinking differential discussed earlier. The listener’s

mind moves so much more rapidly than the spoken word that the listeners impatience

may show as she attempts to complete the speaker’s sentence. Even though the listener

is paying attention, this impatience to complete the speaker’s communication may

develop a negative listening climate. The same is true when the listener works on

something else while attempting to listen. The speaker may soon get the feeling that the

message being delivered is not very important.

It is particularly important to demonstrate a positive climate when involved in empathetic

listening. As discussed earlier in this chapter, an empathetic listener tries to understand

the speaker’s inner feelings. Most people have a very difficult time expressing their, so

an encouraging, supportive, receptive environment needs to be established. Feelings of

elation, sadness. or fear are more easily and willingly expressed when received in a

congruent manner by a receiver whose behaviour demonstrates “I’m with you,”

Unfortunately, incongrnment listener behaviour is too

often the norm. For instance, an employee enters a manager’s office and says she has a

major problem to discuss

Write short notes on:Winding-up of unregistered companies.. (b) Dissolution of a defunct company

(a) Meaning of Unregistered Company (Section 582)

Section 582 of the Companies Act defines an unregistered company. The definition is given in two parts, viz., (i) What the expression ‘unregistered company’ includes; and (ii) What it does not. Clause (b) of Section 582 provides that ‘unregistered company’ shall include any partnership, association or company consisting of more than seven members at the time when the petition for its winding-up is presented before the Court. The expression, however, does not include (i) a railway company incorporated by any Act of Parliament or other Indian law or any Act of Parliament of U .K.; (ii) a company registered under the Companies Act, 1956; or (iii) a company registered under any previous companies law and not being a company the registered office whereof was in Burma, Aden or Pakistan immediately before the separation of that country from India:

An illegal association is not an unregistered company and, therefore, cannot be wound-up under section 583 [Reghubar Dayal Vs. The Sarafa Chamber AIR [1954] All 555].

The definition of ‘unregistered company’ as given under Section 582 should, thus, be read along with Section 11 of the Act. Accordingly, an unregistered company consists of a partnership, association or company having more than seven members but not more than ten members (in case of banking business) and twenty members (in case of other business). If membership exceeds ten or twenty as the case may be, it will be an illegal association and the provisions of Part X of the Act will not apply.

Also, an association or company having less than seven members cannot be wound-up by the Court as an unregistered company.

Winding-up of an Unregistered Company (Section 583)

The rules relating to winding-up of unregistered companies are:

1. No unregistered company shall be wound-up voluntarily or subject to the supervision of the Court [Section 583(3)]. Thus, an unregistered company can only be compulsorily wound-up by the Court.

2. The circumstances under which an unregistered company may be wound-up

are as follows:

(a) If the company is dissolved or has ceased to carry on business or is

carrying on business only for the purposes of winding-up its affairs.

(b) If the company is unable to pay its debts.

(c) If the Court is of the opinion that it is jusrand equitable that the company

should b’e wound-up [Section 583(4)].

As per Section 583(5) an unregistered company shall be deemed unable to pay its

debts in the following circumstances:

(i) if a creditor, to whom the company is indebted in a sum exceeding Rs. 500, has served on the company a demand under his hand requiring the company pay the sum so due, and the company has, for three weeks neglected to pay the sum or to secure or compound for to the satisfaction of the creditor.

(ii) If any suit or other legal proceedings have been instituted against any member for any debt or demand que, or claimed to be due, from the company or from him in his character of member, and notice in writing of the institution of the suit or proceedings having been served on the company and the company has not, within ten days thereafter:

(a) paid, secured or compounded the debt or demand; or (b) procured the suit or legal proceedings to be stayed; or

(c) indemnified the defendant to his satisfaction against the suit of other legal

proceeding and against all costs, damages and expenses to be incurred by him by reason of the same.

(iii) If execution or other process issued on a decree or order of any Court in favour of a creditor against the company or any member thereof is returned unsatisfied in whole or in part.

(iv) If it is otherwise proved to the satisfaction of the Court that the company is

unable to pay its debts. .

As to which Court shall have the jurisdiction in the matter of winding-up of an

unregistered company, sub-section (2) of Section 583 provides as follows:

For the purpose of determining the Court having jurisdiction in the matter of the winding-up, an unregistered company shall be deemed to be registered in the State where its principal place of business is situate or, if it has a principal place of business situated in more than one State, then, in each State where it has a principal place of business. The principal place of business of that State, where the winding-up proceedings have been instituted, shall be deemed to be the registered office of the company for the purposes of winding-up.

Duties of Liquidator

The duties of liquidator with respect to the unpaid money and refundable assets which remains undistributed after six months from the date on which they become payable are enumerated in Section 555 of the Companies Act, 1956. These are:

1. The liquidator shall forthwith pay the said money into the public account of India in the Reserve Bank of India in a separate account known as the Companies Liquidation Account.

2. The liquidator shall, on the dissolution of the company, similarly pay into the said account any money representing unpaid dividends or undistributed assets in his hands at the date of dissolution.

3. The liquidator shall, when making any payment in both the cases furnish to such officer as the Central Government may appoint in this behalf, a statement in the prescribed form, setting forth, in respect of all sums included in such payment, the nature of the sums, the names and last known addresses of the persons entitled to participate therein, and such other particulars as may be prescribed.

4. The liquidator shall be entitled to a receipt from the Reserve Bank of India for any money paid to it in both the cases; and receipt shall be an effectual discharge of the liquidator in respect thereof.

5. Where the company is being wound-up by the Court, the liquidator shall make payments referred to in both the cases by transfer from the account referred to in Section 552 (i.e., the public accounts of India in the RBI).

6. Where the company is being wound-up voluntarily or subject to the supervision of the Court, the liquidator shall, when filing the statement in pursuance of sub-section (1) of Section 551, indicate the sum of money which is payable to the Reserve Bank of India in both the cases which he has in his hands or under his control during the six months preceding the date to which the said

statement is brought down, and shall, within 14 days of the date of filing of the said statement, pay that sum into the Companies Liquidation Account.

7. Any money paid into the Companies Liquidation Account in pursuance of this Section, which remains unclaimed thereafter for a period of 15 years, shall be transferred to the General Revenue Account of the Central Government; but a claim to any money so transferred may be preferred under sub-section (7) and shall be dealt with as if such transfer had not been made; the order, if any, for payment on the claim being treated as an order for refund or revenue.

8. Any liquidator retaining any money which should have been paid by him into

the Companies Liquidation Account under this section shall:

(a) pay interest on the amount retained at the rate of 12% per annum and also pay such penalty as may be determined by the Registrar. However, the Centrl Government may in proper case remit either in part or in whole the amount of interest which the liquidator is required to pay under this

clause;

(b) be liable to pay any expenses occasioned by reason of his default; and (c) where the winding-up is by or under the supervision of the Court,

also be liable to have all or such part of his remuneration as the Court may think just to be disallowed, and to be removed from his office by the court.

What are the powers of the court to order winding-up subject to its super

Voluntary Winding-up Under Supervision of the Court

At any time after a company has passed a resolution for voluntary winding-up, the court may make an order that the voluntary winding-up should continue subject to the supervision of the Court [Section 522]. Application for such supervision may be made by a creditor, or a contributory, or the company, or the liquidator.

“One advantage of having a supervision order is that the liquidator is allowed to occupy the same position and exercise the same power (subject to restrictions, where necessary) as a voluntary liquidator. At the same time the advantage of a compulsory winding-up as regards stay of suits and other proceedings and making and enforcing calls, etc., are also secured and the Court is empowered to exercise all the powers which it can exercise in a compulsory winding-up... In truth, a supervision order is an amalgam of both_a volu...”ltary winding-up and a winding-up by Court as it is made on such terms and conditions as the Court thinks just” [Avadh Behari J., in N. Rajaraman Vs. Hindustan Brown Boveri Ltd.].

Such an order is passed by the court where

1. the resolution for winding-up was obtained by fraud, or

2. the rules relating to winding-up order are not being observed, or 3. the liquidator is prejudicial or is negligent in collecting the assets.

The Court, in such a case, gets the same powers as it has in the case of compulsory winding-up under order of the Court. The Court may also appoint an additional liquidator or liquidators. It may also remove any liquidator and fill any vacancy occasioned by the removal or by death or by resignation [Section 524]. A liquidator so appointed shall have the same powers, be subject to the same obligations and in all respects stand in the same position as if he had been appointed in accordance with the provisions of the Act relating to the appointment of liquidator in voluntary windingup, subject, however, to any restrictions the Court may impose [Section 525].

1. Effect of Superoision Order [Section 5261. Unless the Court imposes restrictions on the exercise of any powers by the liquidator, he will have all the powers conferred on a liquidator in voluntary winding-up [Section 526(1)]. The Court will also have as wide powers as in compulsory winding-up. The Court may stay suits or legal proceedings.

It can make or enforce calls and all other orders necessary for beneficial winding-up of the company [Section 526(2)].

2. Powers of Court to Order Compulsory Winding-up [Section 527]. The court may pass an order for compulsory winding-up superseding the order of winding-up under its supervision. The Court may then appoint a person who is the liquidator, either provisionally or permanently to be liquidator in winding-up by the court in addition to and subject to the control of Official Liquidator.

22. Explain the duties of a liquidator of a company with regard to the following under the Companies Act, 1956:

(i) the money in his hand representing the dividend payable to any creditor, which remained unpaid for a period of six months after the date on which the dividend was declared; and

The shareholders competent to make n application to CLB are

(i) in case of a company having share capital, not less than 200 members or members holding not less than 1j10th of the total voting power therein;

(ii) in case of a company having no share capital, not less than 1j5th of the persons

on the company’s register of members.

The application by members should be supported by necessary evidence to show

that the applicants have good reasons for requiring the investigation (Sec. 236).

The CLB, after hearing the parties, may declare that the affairs of the company ought to be investigated and on such declaration, the Central Government shall appoint one or more Inspectors to investigate the affairs of the company in such manner as directed by the Central Government.