vitally important for the satisfaction of their needs, and so ‘lows’ attempt to maximize

vitally important for the satisfaction of their needs, and so ‘lows’ attempt to maximize

good relations and minimize feelings unease in their interactions with ‘highs. In

conferences, the ‘lows’ communicated less frequently than the ‘highs’, and when they did

communicate they directed their talk mainly to ‘highs’.

These authors and others have shown that persons in low-status positions also engage

in ‘facile distortions’ in their perceptions of their relationships with superiors, and

generally behave in an ‘ego-defensive’ manner. In lay terms people some way down the

social ladder ‘fool’ themselves that their relationships with their superiors are much more

important than they really are. The following quote from one of the managers in the study

illustrates this point: ‘What I really need to get some of my ideas going, is to report

directly to the board, they could see things more clearly.’

There is, however, work by Perlmutter and Hymovitch which has received little attention

although it raises some fundamental points about the ‘instrumental theory. These

academics demonstrated that upward communication may be used specifically to

achieve the aims of the communicator but need not always be

deferential or approval seeking, the context of the communication being of great

importance. In a college setting it was found that students communicated more critical

comments to a group of high”’power faculty members than to thos with less power.